"Ritual Sovereignty and Merchant Guild Hegemony Behind Rajendra Chola’s Overseas Campaigns." Er. R. Komagan. Emeritus Professor, Maritime History and Maritime Archaeology Department, Thanjai Tamil University.

Ritual Sovereignty and Merchant Guild Hegemony Behind Rajendra Chola’s Overseas Campaigns.

Er. R. Komagan. Emeritus Professor, Maritime History and Maritime Archaeology Department, Thanjai Tamil University.

Abstract

The overseas expeditions of Rajendra Chola, particularly the renowned naval campaign to Southeast Asia in 1025 CE, are often explained through straightforward geopolitical or economic motivations, such as the acquisition of territory, the capture of regalia, or the control of trade routes. However, this report argues for a more nuanced understanding. Drawing upon scholarly theories of medieval South Indian statecraft, this analysis posits that Rajendra Chola's military campaigns were a direct and strategic response to a fundamental conflict between the Chola state’s chosen religious ideology—Shaiva-Vaithika ritual sovereignty—and a powerful, pre-existing economic and political network dominated by Buddhist institutions in the Indian Ocean. The expeditions, including the conquest of Kadaram and the campaign to the Gangetic plains, were not isolated events but a coherent strategy to dismantle the Buddhist network and assert a new Chola-centric, Shaiva-Vaithika political and economic hegemony. The culmination of this effort was the founding of Gangaikondacholapuram and the construction of its great temple, a symbolic and physical manifestation of this ideological and martial victory.  

Introduction

The overseas naval expedition of Rajendra Chola, which saw his forces sail across the seas to conquer the states of Southeast Asia in 1025 CE, is a landmark event in Asian history. While its significance is widely acknowledged, the precise motivations behind this prolonged period of conflict remain a subject of scholarly debate. Conventional historical explanations tend to compartmentalize his military endeavours: the campaign to Sri Lanka is viewed as a quest to seize the Pandya regalia, the northern expedition to the Gangetic plains as a pilgrimage to acquire sacred water from the Ganges, and the conquest of Sri Vijaya (Kadaram) as a simple act of commercial expansion.  

This report, however, posits that these explanations, while offering some insight into the political dynamics, fail to provide a comprehensive understanding of the underlying socio-economic and ideological factors. A deeper, more holistic analysis reveals a complex interweaving of religious doctrine, political authority, and economic competition. The central thesis is that Rajendra's military campaigns were a necessary and strategic culmination of the Chola state’s ongoing efforts to assert its unique form of sovereignty over a rival, well-established Buddhist hegemonic network in the Indian Ocean trade. To fully appreciate this argument, it is essential to first understand the theoretical and historical underpinnings of Chola kingship, as articulated by scholars such as Burton Stein.  

Theoretical and Historical Foundations of Chola Kingship:

The Theory of Segmentary and Ritual Sovereignty

Understanding the nature of the Chola state is crucial for comprehending its motivations for expansion. The Chola polity, particularly during the early medieval period, did not operate on a model of centralized, bureaucratic governance based purely on military and political authority. Instead, it functioned on the principle of a "segmentary state" and "ritual sovereignty," a concept extensively developed by historian Burton Stein.  

The Chola state’s power was not uniformly exercised. The king, positioned at the centre, was the source of "ritual sovereignty," meaning his legitimacy was derived from a sacred, spiritual foundation. The actual administrative and political control, or "segmentary authority," was decentralized and held by local rulers, known as Velir, as well as by village assemblies and merchant guilds. The central king's authority was not based on direct control over these segments but on his position as a ritual and religious head, whose spiritual legitimacy was acknowledged by the local rulers.  

This form of power explains why the Chola state relied so heavily on religious institutions. Its governance was not about absolute political dominance but about creating a pervasive spiritual network through temples, rituals, religious festivals, and Brahmin village councils. This spiritual foundation served as the binding force that organized and controlled society, extending the king's influence far beyond the reach of his direct military or administrative apparatus. The Chola state needed a powerful religious ideology like Shaivism to expand its influence. It was not just an administrative or military strategy, but an ideological one. The state "captured" local power not by brute force alone, but by bringing local elites into its religious and ritualistic fold, compelling their acknowledgement, and legitimizing their own positions through their connection to the centre.  

 We can say Chola state as a “Ritual–Corporate Segmentary Fusion Polity”(சடங்குடன் நிறுவனக் குழைவு கூறாக்க அரசு ). Chola sovereignty was not that of a fully centralized empire but rather a fusion of multiple elements. Ritual sacralization (temple liturgies, royal consecration), narrative legitimation (prasastis and mythic accounts), charter authority (inscriptions and copper-plate grants), corporate institutions (village assemblies, mercantile guilds), and a segmentary administrative order coalesced into a distinctive political formation. This integrative framework demonstrates how Chola political authority was simultaneously sacral, narrative, juridical, corporate, and segmentary. By doing so, it both extends and synthesizes Burton Stein’s “segmentary state” model and Kesavan Veluthat’s emphasis on ritual sovereignty, offering a new interpretation of Chola political sovereignty.

The sovereignty of the Chola state was not that of a centralized empire. It was a ritual-institutional-segmentary hybrid political structure. This integrates the theory of the segmentary state proposed by Burton Stein, the concept of ritual sovereignty emphasized by Veluthat, and the theory of Śaiva ritual kingship proposed by Sanderson. This creates a new understanding of Chola political sovereignty.

From Ancient Chieftains to Centralized Monarchies

The origins of this segmentary structure can be traced back to the pre-monarchical period of Tamil history. Long before the rise of the great monarchies (Vendhar), the Tamil polity was organized around a system of local chieftains or clans known as the Velir. These chieftains, whose authority was based on kinship ties and control over natural resources, are documented in ancient texts like the Tolkappiyam and Sangam literature. The text describes the emergence of two classes—a ruling class and a service class—during the Megalithic period, with the ruling class gaining control over local resources like iron, gold, and gems. It was from this ruling class that the   Velir later emerged.  

The Tolkappiyam, an ancient grammatical and linguistic text, played a crucial role in the political transition that followed. Beyond its function as a treatise on language, the text's act of defining and standardizing the Tamil language and its geographical boundaries was, in itself, an act of authority. By delineating a unified "great Tamil land" (பெருநிலம்) composed of five distinct ecological zones, the Tolkappiyam provided a conceptual framework for a new, larger polity. This act of linguistic and geographical consolidation served to weaken the disparate, local identities of the Velir and lay the groundwork for the rise of a centralized monarchy, or the Vendhar. This suggests that the centuries-long struggle between the Vendhar and the Velir was not solely a military one, but also a cultural and linguistic one. By championing a unified Tamil identity and, later, a specific religious order, the Chola state was continuing this process of centralizing power and dissolving local, kin-based autonomies.  

The Chola clan, which originally comprised ten separate kudis (clans) in the Kaveri delta, consolidated its power over time. While nine of these clans' leadership remains unclear, historical records indicate that one Chola clan, based in Kudanthai (Pazhaiyarai), became the dominant force, and later re-emerged as the great imperial Chola dynasty, starting with Vijayalaya Chola in the 9th century CE. The rise of this dynasty marked the beginning of a sustained period of rule, lasting over 400 years and reaching its zenith under Rajaraja I and Rajendra I.  

The Era of Rajaraja I: Centralization and the Temple State

The Strategic Shift from Segmentary Rule

The long-standing conflict between the monarchical Vendhar and the localized Velir persisted for centuries. Even during the Sangam period, the term "Vampa Ventar" (rude kings) was used to refer to the central monarchs, indicating the local rulers' resentment towards their overbearing authority. This historical friction underscored the limitations of a purely segmentary political model. While the Chola kings were the ritualistic heads, local rulers still held significant administrative power, often leading to internal revolts and instability.  

The reign of Rajaraja I (985-1014 CE) marked a critical turning point. He began to systematically shift the state from a purely "segmentary" model towards a more "centralized" ritual authority. This was not a move towards a modern, centralized bureaucracy but a strategic effort to consolidate power by embedding the king's authority more deeply into the administrative and religious fabric of the kingdom. Key to this process was the measurement and categorization of land, which allowed for better revenue administration and provided a basis for state-wide authority.  

The Instrumentalization of Religion: Temples and Brahmadeyas

The foundation of this shift was a deliberate institutionalization of religion. The Chola state, from the time of Vijayalaya, used a specific form of Shaivism—the Shaiva-Vaithika tradition—as the ideological basis for its rule. This involved providing generous grants of land to Brahmin communities, creating so-called.  

Brahmadeyas. These settlements were not just religious institutions; they were also powerful centres of economic and political control, with the Brahmin assemblies (Sabhas) managing land, water resources, and judicial matters. Scholars such as Noboru Karashima highlight that these Brahmadeya villages were the very bedrock of the Chola political structure, inextricably linking ritual, politics, and economics.  

The proliferation of these institutions was a calculated political manoeuvre. The article notes that Rajaraja I's reign saw the creation of over 250 Brahmadeya villages in the Kaveri delta alone, a number that more than doubled in later periods to over 50 Valanadus. The creation of new administrative divisions called Valanadus was another political innovation. These new divisions, which often disregarded traditional local boundaries, were named after the king's titles, and served to directly undermine the power of the petty chieftains. The act of renaming a territory after the king's name was a powerful symbolic declaration of ownership and a redefinition of identity. A region that was once "land of the Velir" became "land of the Chola king," systematically eroding the traditional, kinship-based authority of the local rulers and integrating their territories more directly into the king-centric state. The following table provides a breakdown of the distribution and number of these vital institutions, as cited by prominent scholars:  

Distribution and Number of Brahmadeyas and Villages in the Chola Kingdom

Scholar	Time Frame / Area	Measurement (Number / Scope)	Territory	Source / Note	Observations
Y. Subbarayalu	Rajaraja I (985–1014) Kaveri Basin	Over 250 Brahmadeyas in the Kaveri basin; this is half of the total number that existed by the 13th century.	Kaveri basin (Chola Nadu)	Subbarayalu – Review of Agrarian Studies (Summary of Karashima's data)	Summary from an online interview; an estimation of regional/temporal distribution.
Noboru Karashima	10–12th century Chola Nadu	1,300 village names; of these, 250 are Brahmadeyams, 50 are Devadanam, and 25 are Nagaram.	Chola Nadu (Kaveri Delta, Thondai Nadu)	Karashima – epigraphic datasets; Summary by Subbarayalu	Number from a dataset; not a 'total' for the entire country.
Burton Stein	Distribution up to c.1300 in Tamil Nadu	Focus on 'distribution' rather than numbers – Map IV-1; Table VII-1	Tamil Nadu (Mandalam/Taluk distribution)	Stein – Peasant State and Society in Medieval South India (OUP)	No 'total count' data provided for the era of Rajendra I.

 

The consolidation of power under Rajaraja I set the stage for Rajendra's ambitious foreign policy. The state's new political framework, which was supported by the Shaiva-Vaithika order, required not only internal stability but also a means to project its newfound authority onto the international stage, where it would inevitably clash with competing ideologies and networks.  

 

The Indian Ocean Trade and Competing Networks

The Pervasive Buddhist Network

By the 10th and 11th centuries, the Indian Ocean trade had evolved far beyond a simple exchange of goods. It was a global network that fostered deep religious and political alliances, connecting Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. Along the maritime silk roads, states and merchant guilds used religious affiliations as a means of political and economic strategy. In this context, Buddhism had established itself as the dominant "soft power" and spiritual identity of the network.  

Buddhist monasteries (viharas) and temples served as more than just places of worship; they were also key economic centres that offered social and political legitimacy to the merchant guilds. The presence of Buddhist monks who often travelled alongside merchants facilitated the spread of the religion, particularly in Southeast Asia. Major political and commercial hubs like the Pala Empire in northern India, the kingdom of Sri Lanka (Theravada Buddhism), and Sri Vijaya (Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism) were all anchored by a strong Buddhist identity. This network exerted significant influence and control over the sea trade, creating a powerful rival to the rising Chola state.  

Chola Merchant Guilds: Competition and Religious Conflict

Within the Chola kingdom, merchant guilds were not monolithic entities. While they were a vital part of the economy and were instrumental in providing grants and support for temples, they were also fraught with internal conflicts that were often rooted in economic competition but manifested along religious lines. Guilds such as the Ayyavolu, Manigramam, and Nānādeśī competed fiercely for control of trade routes and customs rights. This economic rivalry frequently took a religious form. For instance, while some guilds patronized Shaiva temples, others provided significant financial support to Buddhist viharas in places like Nagapattinam and even abroad in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.  

The conflicts between these guilds highlight a deeper underlying tension. We can say that economic self-interest was at the root of these disputes, which "manifested through religious channels". The Chola state, by explicitly supporting a Shaiva-Vaithika ideology and consolidating its power through Shaiva institutions, was essentially choosing a side in this economic struggle. By creating a favourable environment for Shaiva-aligned guilds, it was implicitly putting pressure on those with Buddhist affiliations. These dynamic reveals that the Chola state’s foreign policy was not just about economic gain; it was a state-level intervention to resolve internal economic conflicts by reorganizing the international trade network to favour its chosen religious and economic model.  

Table: Scholars’ Inferences of Guild Competition / Conflict & Their Reliability:

Guild / Division	Primary Epigraphic Evidence	Religious Context in Epigraphy	Scholars’ Inference of Conflict / Competition
Ayyavolu (Ainnūṟṟuvar)	Numerous records (e.g., Kollam, Barus, Chidambaram, Piranmalai) name Ayyavole-500 in trade and temple donations.	Endowments mainly to Hindu temples (Śaiva / Vaiṣṇava) – e.g., lamp endowments, feeding halls.	Inferred competition with Buddhist/Jain merchants in coastal markets, but no single inscription says 'conflict.'
Añjuvannam	Explicitly named in several Tamil & Kerala inscriptions as distinct merchant bodies.	In Tamil sources, linked with 'palli' (non-Vedic shrines) as well as Hindu temples.	Some scholars hypothesize Buddhist/Jewish/Islamic associations; but no inscription at Nagapattinam vihāra names Añjuvannam.
Nānādeśī	Inscriptions across Andhra, Karnataka, and Tamil regions mention Nānādeśi guild alongside Ayyavolu.	Religious affiliation is not specified in inscriptions.	Interpreted as 'adaptable' overseas traders, possibly supporting local Buddhist vihāras in SEA; but no direct donor record yet.
Valangai–Idangai (Right & Left-hand divisions)	Epigraphs from Tiruvarur, Vr̥ddhāchalam (1429 CE), Tiruvidaimarudur (SII 23.288, 1193 CE) regulate their fiscal rights & procession privileges.	Religion = Hindu temple contexts (Śaiva, Vaiṣṇava).	Scholars read this as evidence of procession disputes & market tensions; violent blockades are noted only in later literary/colonial sources, not firmly in Chola inscriptions.

 

This complex interplay of economics and religion culminated in direct clashes both domestically and abroad. Conflicts between Tamil and Sinhalese merchants in Sri Lanka's ports, and rivalries among the Añjuvannam and Manigramam guilds for customs rights in ports like Nagapattinam, were all part of this larger competition for dominance within the Indian Ocean trade. The following table provides a detailed look at these trade rivalries:  

Trade Rivalries in the Chola Period

Site / Region	Inscription (date)	Literal Content (from inscription)	Scholarly Inference (competition/conflict)	Reliability Assessment
Nagapattinam (India)	Larger Leiden plates of Rajaraja I (EI XXII:34, c.1006 CE)	Records Buddhist vihara built by Kadaram/Srivijaya ruler with Rajaraja’s grant; no guilds mentioned.	Context implies contested patronage space (Buddhist vs Shaiva support).	Moderate – inference only; not in text.
Kollam (Kerala, India)	Kollam Syrian Copper Plates (849 CE)	Grant to Syrian Christian merchant; witnesses include Anjuvannam and Manigramam; privileges and concessions.	Multiple guilds present ⇒ competitive coexistence over customs and urban space.	High – guilds attested; competition inferred.
Kodungallur (Kerala)	Viraraghava Copper Plate (c.1225 CE)	Grants rights of Manigramam guild incl. monopoly, brokerage, tolls.	Exclusive rights suggest jurisdictional contest with rivals.	Moderate–High – monopolies real; rivalry implied.
Barus / Lobu Tua (Sumatra)	Lobu Tua Tamil Inscription (1088 CE)	Ayyavole/Ainnurruvar inscription; records excise/tax collection rights.	Shows guild asserting customs control vis-à-vis others.	Moderate – authority explicit; conflict inferred.
Takua Pa (Malay Peninsula)	Takua Pa Tamil Inscription (9th c.)	Tamil record near Vishnu temple; linked to Nanadesi presence.	Guild foothold overseas; competition for routes/warehouses inferred.	Low–Moderate – presence clear; competition extrapolated.
Periyapattinam (India)	Jewish pillar inscription (c.1200–1250 CE)	Grant to synagogue (Cudappalli); boundaries list Nanadesi, church, mosque, Ainurruvar.	Urban adjacency implies symbolic competition among religious/mercantile groups.	High for plural presence; Moderate for competition inference.
Polonnaruwa (Sri Lanka)	Tamil inscription (11th–12th c.)	Ainnurruvar endowment in Sinhalese capital; mentions palli (shrines).	Guild religious patronage in Sinhalese city ⇒ overlapping economic interests.	Moderate – strong presence, tension inferred.
Padaviya (Sri Lanka)	Ainnurruvar slab inscription (12th c.)	Records Tamil merchant-town activity of Ainnurruvar.	Inland presence suggests corridor control; conflict with monasteries inferred.	Moderate – presence real; competition inferred.

 

Rajendra Chola's Expeditions: A Strategic Response

The traditional view of Rajendra's campaigns as isolated, politically motivated acts misses the crucial link between internal political developments and external military actions. The analysis of Chola kingship and the merchant networks shows that the state was engaged in a fundamental ideological struggle to establish its Shaiva-Vaithika sovereignty. This required not only the consolidation of power within the kingdom, as initiated by Rajaraja I, but also the dismantling of the competing Buddhist network that controlled the Indian Ocean trade. Rajendra Chola’s campaigns to Sri Lanka, the Gangetic plains, and Kadaram were not disparate events, but a single, coherent strategy aimed at this overarching goal.  

Rajendra, great wars were necessary to put an end to these issues and continue his politics of dominance. These wars were waged to "dismantle the trade network controlled by Buddhist networks" and establish commercial hegemony, which in turn required establishing new cities and new trade networks. The overseas and naval expeditions of Rajendra Chola were the wars that were launched to bring commerce closer to the Shaiva-Vaithika political order. The "effort to dismantle the trade network controlled by Buddhist networks and establish Chola Shaiva-Vaithika political dominance" was successful.

The Sri Lankan Campaign: Securing the Maritime Frontier

The Chola's involvement in Sri Lanka began during the reign of Rajaraja I, who had annexed the northern parts of the island, though some territories remained under local Sinhalese control. In 1015 CE, Rajendra Chola launched a decisive campaign against Sri Lanka, continuing his father's efforts. The invasion was a response to ongoing rebellions and aimed to complete the conquest of the island. The campaign resulted in the capture of the Sinhalese King Mahinda V, his queen, and daughter, who were brought back to the Chola country as prisoners. Rajendra also seized the Pandya kings' regal jewels and the Sinhala king's crown. His forces conquered the ancient Buddhist capital of Anuradhapura, leading to its destruction and the looting of its great monastery (mahavihara). Rajendra’s comprehensive control over the island transformed it into a full-fledged Chola province, administered by Chola governors. This was a strategic move not just for territorial expansion, but also to secure a crucial maritime frontier that was a major part of the Buddhist-dominated trade network.  

The Gangetic Campaign: A Symbolic Victory

The campaign to northern India, commonly explained as a quest for sacred Ganga water, must be reinterpreted considering this ideological struggle. During this expedition, Rajendra's army defeated the Pala dynasty, which was a major centre of the Buddhist world at the time.  The Thiruvalangadu plates provide a profound insight into the true nature of this victory. The inscription states that the Chola general made the defeated kings of the Gangetic plains carry the sacred water to consecrate the new temple in the Chola kingdom. This act was not merely a military triumph; it was a ritualistic declaration of victory. The defeated, non-Shaiva rulers were forced to participate in a Shaiva ceremony, thus publicly acknowledging the spiritual and political supremacy of the Chola king. The victory was an ideological one, broadcast through a powerful ritual.  

This explains the founding of Gangaikondacholapuram as more than just a new capital. It was the physical manifestation of this symbolic victory, a new city designed to be a central node in the Chola-controlled, Shaiva-Vaithika trade and political network, a direct rival to the older Buddhist ones.  

The Kadaram Campaign: Dismantling the Buddhist Trade Network

The naval expedition to Sri Vijaya (Kadaram) in 1025 CE was the most decisive move in this strategic effort. As noted in the article, Kadaram was a Buddhist state that served as a crucial hub for the Buddhist-controlled trade network. The campaign was therefore not just a punitive raid but a direct attack on the core of the rival economic and political superstructure. Rajendra Chola, by decisively attacking the most significant Buddhist power centre in the region, was securing his kingdom’s economic future and decisively siding with the Shaiva-Vaithika aligned merchant guilds. The campaign was a necessary act of statecraft to stabilize the domestic political economy by reorganizing the international trade network to favour the Chola state's chosen religious and economic model.  

 Conclusion: The Legacy of Gangaikondacholapuram

Rajendra Chola's military campaigns were far more than a series of isolated political and economic ventures. They were a single, coherent strategy that was a culmination of the Chola state’s struggle to transition from a decentralized "segmentary" state to a more centralized one, a process initiated by his father, Rajaraja I. This process was inextricably linked to the assertion of a new, unified Shaiva-Vaithika religious and political ideology. The expeditions were a direct response to the powerful and pervasive Buddhist-dominated networks that controlled the Indian Ocean trade, and the Chola state saw the need to "overthrow" this network to secure its own economic and political dominance.

By breaking the "trade network controlled by Buddhist networks" and by establishing a temple named Gangaikondacholisvaram and consecrating Shiva as Gangaikondacholisan within it, he secured his "Shaiva Vaithika political sovereignty." Therefore, it can be said that through his overseas expeditions, he "dismantled the trade network controlled by Buddhist networks and established Chola Shaiva Vaithika political sovereignty."  

The founding of Gangaikondacholapuram and the construction of the Gangaikondacholisvaram temple stand as the ultimate symbolic and physical representation of this victory. The city was a new capital and a new economic centre, and its temple, consecrated with the sacred Ganga water brought by the defeated kings, served as the new religious core of the empire. This city and its temple were designed to replace the old Buddhist network and legitimize the Chola state's new political and economic order, thus cementing its Shaiva-Vaithika ritual sovereignty on the world stage.  

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Appendix

Table 1: The Role of Ritual and Segmentary Sovereignty in Medieval South Indian States

State	Period	Segmentary Structure	Role of Ritual Sovereignty	Evidence / Citation
Pallava	6–9th Century	Kanchipuram center; autonomous Nadu–Ur–Sabha	Land grants to Shaiva–Vaishnava temples; royal authority through Agamic rituals	SII Vol. II; Stein 1980, p.98
Chola	9–13th Century	King as the ritual center; Nattar, Urar, merchant guilds in outer segments	Shaiva Agamic rituals, temple donations, Brahmadeyas	SII Vol. VI, XII; Stein 1980, pp. 115–120; Sanderson 2009
Chera	9–11th Century	Dependent on coastal trade; autonomous local chiefdoms	Donations to Shaiva–Jain temples; trade rituals	TAS Vol. IV; Karashima 1984, p.71
Pandya	13–16th Century	Autonomous Valanadus and Sabhas; frequent rebellions	Donations to Meenakshi Sundareswarar Temple; Shaiva ritual center	ARE 1911–12 Nos.45, 67; K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The Pandyan Kingdom
Ganga Kingdoms (Kongu Nadu)	9–11th Century	Under the Cholas, but made independent land grants	Ritual role centered on Shaiva–Jain temples	SII Vol. XII; ARE 1926–27 No.156
Hoysala	12–14th Century	Autonomous Nadu–Nadu; continuation of Chola–Ganga tradition	Donations to Shaiva, Vaishnava, Jain temples; Dharmashakti politics	Epigraphia Carnatica Vol. V; Stein 1980, p.131
Chalukya (Western)	6–8th Century	Pattadakal, Aihole, Badami center; autonomous local Mandala chiefs	Construction of Shaiva–Vaishnava temples; royal authority through ritual	Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XII; D.C. Sircar 1966
Chalukya (Eastern)	10–12th Century	Power struggle in Chola–Chalukya border regions; local leaders acted independently	Supported both Shaivism and Jainism; stabilized rule through temple–ritual	South Indian Inscriptions Vol. XV; Burton Stein 1980
Rashtrakuta	8–10th Century	Large empire; subdued Pallavas–Chalukyas, but local Nadu–Desa autonomous	Ellora Kailasanatha Temple; donated to all—Shaiva, Jain, Buddhist	Epigraphia Indica Vol. XX; K.A. Nilakanta Sastri 1955
Western Ganga (Mysore)	9–11th Century	Under Cholas but with autonomy	Shaiva–Jain temples; inscriptions confirm ritual role	SII Vol. XII; ARE 1926–27
Eastern Ganga (Kalinga)	11–13th Century	Fought independently with Chola influence	Shaiva temples (precursor to Jagannath Temple); ritual identity	South Indian Inscriptions Vol. XVIII; Hermann Kulke 1997